Microbiol. 7, 21192127. Biotechnol. Microbiol. Patulin may be produced by over 60 filamentous fungal species. Eating food containing a large amount of aflatoxins at one time can lead to liver failure and even death. Bacterial-fungal interactions: hyphens between agricultural, clinical, environmental, and food microbiologists. Spectr 5, 12. However, these controls have limited effects. It is a white powder soluble in acidic water and in organic solvents. (2013). The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The link between fungi and severe asthma: a summary of the evidence. doi: 10.1093/jxb/eraa424, Janakiev, T., Dimki, I., Unkovi, N., Ljaljevi Grbi, M., Opsenica, D., Gai, U., et al. [3], WHO concluded that patulin is genotoxic based on variable genotoxicity data, however it is considered a group 3 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) since data was inconclusive. 13:114. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-13-114, Paul, V., and Pandey, R. (2014). A bacterial isolate from soil, identified as a member of the Stenotrophomonas genus, has also been found to produce aflatoxin inhibitors (Jermnak et al., 2013). doi: 10.3390/md12115503, Martins, G., Miot-Sertier, C., Lauga, B., Claisse, O., Lonvaud-Funel, A., Soulas, G., et al. 1573, eds B. Binder and G. Eric Schaller (New York, NY: Humana Press). The most successful BCAs currently used on fruits and vegetables are Bio-Save 100 and 110. Toxicol. . doi: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1417235, Elhariry, H., Khiralla, G., Gherbawy, Y., and ElRahman, H. (2016). Contamination of food commodities, such as cereals and cereal products, coffee beans, dry vine fruits, wine and grape juice, spices and liquorice, occurs worldwide. Interestingly, patulin production by P. expansum is highly variable depending on the apple cultivar (Snini et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2017). HexA is required for growth, aflatoxin biosynthesis and virulence in Aspergillus flavus. Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by certain species of Penicillium and Aspergillus, often detectable in mouldy fruits and their derivatives. Front. Mycotoxins are a group of naturally occurring chemicals produced by certain moulds. "Foodborne hazards (World Health Organization". Resource Annou. [8] Patulin has also been detected in grains like barley, wheat, corn and their processed products as well as in shellfish.,[5][9] An official website of the United States government, : The primary producer of alternariol is Alternaria alternata, a causal agent of fruit rot, that has been found apple, cranberry, and pomegranate juices (Jurick et al., 2014; Elhariry et al., 2016; Solhaug et al., 2016). Food and Drug Administration (2000). The FDA has established official methods for analyzing mycotoxins, which you can find in Chapter 7, Part IV, Section II of the FDAs Compliance Program Guidance Manual on Mycotoxins in Domestic and Imported Foods (CP 7307.001). While studies are limited in postharvest conditions, many findings have suggested that the hormones produced by the plant also have effects on microbial colonization, including phytopathogenic fungi. Would you like email updates of new search results? eCollection 2022 Oct. Kumar P, Gupta A, Mahato DK, Pandhi S, Pandey AK, Kargwal R, Mishra S, Suhag R, Sharma N, Saurabh V, Paul V, Kumar M, Selvakumar R, Gamlath S, Kamle M, Enshasy HAE, Mokhtar JA, Harakeh S. Toxins (Basel). The foods most susceptible to aflatoxins include peanuts, corn, tree nuts such as Brazil nuts and pistachios, and some small grains such as rice. Fungal hyphae colonization by Bacillus subtilis relies on biofilm matrix components. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b03103, Yao, G.-F., Li, C., Sun, K.-K., Tang, J., Huang, Z.-Q., Yang, F., et al. (2016). PLoS One 10:e0131069. Microbiol. Ochratoxins are produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium species; and patulin is produced mainly by Penicillium. High levels of this toxin occur when hot, dry weather is followed by a period of high humidity. HB, WJ, and MB wrote the manuscript. The majority of these compounds are involved in microbemicrobe interactions, however, many are SMs that are intricately linked in host (fruit)biofilm interactions (Jacoby et al., 2020). Rapid Detection and Quantification of Patulin and Citrinin Contamination in Fruits. In addition, patulin has been found in other foods such as grains, fruits, and vegetables. (2019). The development of the microbiome in plant systems is quite complex and currently not well understood. Spatial and compositional variation in the fungal communities of organic and conventionally grown apple fruit at the consumer point-of-purchase. 84, e1009e1018. [3], Studies in rats showed decreased weight, and gastric, intestinal, and renal function changes, while repetitive doses lead to neurotoxicity. vertically transmitted endophytic resources for sustainable improvement in plant growth. Toxins (Basel). Res. Evidence of this variability has already been found in apples growing from different rootstocks (Liu et al., 2018) and from apples grown using organic compared to conventional practices (Abdelfattah et al., 2016; Wassermann et al., 2019a). For research use only. Pseudomonas syringae strains ESC-10 and ESC-11 survive in wounds on citrus and control green and blue molds of citrus. Hot, wet climates breed these toxins during the storage and processing of plant foods. Exploitation of microbial antagonists for the control of postharvest diseases of fruits: a review. Inoculation of abscisic acid-producing endophytic bacteria enhances salinity stress tolerance in Oryza sativa. ensure a diverse diet this not only helps to reduce mycotoxins exposure, but also improves nutrition. Res. doi: 10.3201/eid2305.161556, Ghuffar, S., Irshad, G., Ahmed, M. Z., Zeshan, M. A., Ali, R., Haq, E. U., et al. Bacterial biofilm shows persistent resistance to liquid wetting and gas penetration. Fungal Ecol. Study on the role of patulin on pathogenicity and virulence of Penicillium expansum. Biol. Fruit juice: healthy beverage choice, or health halo effect? Occurrence and Health Risk of Patulin and Pyrethroids in Fruit Juices Consumed in Bangkok, Thailand. Guidance Document: Guidance for Industry. FOIA Mutagenic effects of host macrophages and formation of micronuclei have also been reported to be caused by alternariol (Solhaug et al., 2016). World Health Organization Food Additives Series 35 (. Microbiol. 3, 4, 8 These fungi are known to produce other mycotoxins like citrinin, cyclopiazonic acid, ochratoxin A, roquefortine C, etc. Patulin is a mycotoxin that commonly affects pome fruit (apples and pears), but has been found in a variety of other fruits and food commodities. Accessibility Once harvested, in storage facilities, fruit continue to have exposure to potential biotic agents via storage bins, surrounding fruit, and the air within the facility. Folia Horticulturae 31:195. doi: 10.2478/fhort-2019-0014, Morales, H., Sanchis, V., Usall, J., Ramos, A. J., and Marn, S. (2008). These BCAs can target other live pathogens or biodegrade the toxins produced by those pathogens (Vanhoutte et al., 2016; Leyva Salas et al., 2017). 2020 Sep;184:83-93. doi: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.05.006. Although some of these findings have been attributed to interactions of the microbes with the host phyllosphere in the field, it could be hypothesized that these connections are relevant in postharvest conditions. J Food Prot. van Rij, E. T., Girard, G., Lugtenberg, B. J. J., and Bloemberg, G. V. (2005). ; McCay, J.A. Biofilm formation in fungi has many similarities to that of bacteria in its form, function, and processes (Fanning and Mitchell, 2012; Costa-Orlandi et al., 2017; Mehmood et al., 2019). Biotechnol. The mycotoxin patulin is mainly found in rotting apples and is produced by the mold fungi Aspergillus and Penicillium. Microbiol. SA has been shown to stimulate defense-associated phenylpropanoid pathway enzymes when applied to grapes after harvest (Chen et al., 2006). doi: 10.1111/mpp.12338. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1011033108, Escriv, L., Oueslati, S., Font, G., and Manyes, L. (2017). (2020). Mould growth can occur either before harvest or after harvest, during storage, on/in the food itself often under warm, damp and humid conditions. Microbiome studies have been at the forefront of microbiology for the last few years (Berg et al., 2014; Compant et al., 2019). Poapolathep S, Tanhan P, Piasai O, Imsilp K, Hajslova J, Giorgi M, Kumagai S, Poapolathep A. J Food Prot. Inhibition of bacterial quorum sensing by extracts from aquatic fungi: first report from marine endophytes. Microorganisms 5:37. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms5030037, Li, B., Chen, Y., Zong, Y., Shang, Y., Zhang, Z., Xu, X., et al. Llewellyn, G.C. The toxins can also be found in the milk of animals that are fed contaminated feed, in the form of aflatoxin M1. Some theorize that it may be a carcinogen, although animal studies have remained inconclusive. Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by a variety of moulds, particularly Aspergillus, Penicillium and Byssochlamys. doi: 10.1007/s00253-008-1691-z, Liew, W. P., and Mohd-Redzwan, S. (2018). Biofilm 1:100007. doi: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2019.100007, Kobiler, I., Akerman, M., Huberman, L., and Prusky, D. (2011). The process of biofilm formation begins with bacteria attaching to a surface or aggregating with other bacteria, usually due to an environmental cue (e.g., redox compounds, nutrients, low antibiotic concentrations). Penicillin, produced by Penicillium spp. Phytopathology. Another group of hormones involved in plant growth, brassinosteroids, have been shown to be excellent tools for regulating ripening, as additions of a brassinosteroid, brassinozole, resulted in increased ripening of tomato (postharvest), by altering ethylene and ABA production (Zhu et al., 2015). doi: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2013.06.014, Luo, H., Dai, S., Ren, J., Zhang, C., Ding, Y., Li, Z., et al. They can cause renal, pulmonary, neurologic, hematologic and immunologic toxic effects; however, this is dependent on the level of ingestion, frequency of ingestion and specific mycotoxin consumed1. As the analytical techniques are continuously improving, PAT determination in multi-mycotoxin analysis has advanced using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) during the last year. Other mycotoxins occurring in food have been linked to long-term effects on health, including the induction of cancers and immune deficiency. Grape berry bacterial microbiota: Impact of the ripening process and the farming system. Cell. Food Syst. [19], "Claviform" redirects here. What is there in seeds? Genome, transcriptome, and functional analyses of Penicillium expansum provide new insights into secondary metabolism and pathogenicity. It is always best practice to perform routine quality tests, to best manage the risks that may be associated with a specific product. They can cause harm and/or cause alterations to the host organism which can result in differences in nutrient availability, stress compound production, and immunological responses. Phytoalexins, cell wall degrading enzymes, siderophores, reactive oxygen species, and an abundance of nutrients are but a few additional compounds that impact the interactions discussed here. 140, 107112. Foods 9:892. doi: 10.3390/foods9070892, Dorner, J. W., and Lamb, M. C. (2006). (2019). The fruit microbiome: a new frontier for postharvest biocontrol and postharvest biology. Zhang B, Xu D, Shao L, Liang H, Li J, Huang C. Toxicol Res (Camb). (2019). @article{Mahato2021PatulinIF, title={Patulin in food: A mycotoxin concern for human health and its management strategies. (2010). Samif01 and its bioactivities. Nevertheless, worrying PAT levels were recently recorded in diverse foods across the world. Int. Some of the most severe impacts of aflatoxins are caused by their ability to bind to proteins non-specifically, cause point mutations within the host DNA, and cause general oxidative damage (Hussein and Brasel, 2001; Caceres et al., 2020). Appl. Microbiol. 2.4) is produced by a variety of molds, especially Aspergillus and Penicillium, which are commonly detected in a variety of foodstuffs such as cereals, vegetables, and fruits including apples and pears. However, one study in apple showed that fungal infection of Penicillium expansum and Neofabrea independently resulted in a severe decrease in bacterial colonization in comparison to fungal colonization of the whole apple, demonstrating the broad impact of the toxin producing pathogens on the carposphere during colonization (Wassermann et al., 2019b). Are epiphytic microbial communities in the carposphere of ripening grape clusters (Vitis vinifera L.) different between conventional, organic, and biodynamic grapes? Patulin has also been associated with increasing biofilm formation in a Bacillus sp. The soil microbiome influences grapevine-associated microbiota. Mycotoxins are poisonous compounds produced by mold and fungi found commonly in grains, fruits, and coffee. 26, 7383. MeSH doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.07.028, Tolaini, V., Zjalic, S., Reverberi, M., Fanelli, C., Fabbri, A. while on peanut (Roze et al., 2004). Fusarium species are significant for contamination of plants in the field. [4] However, dietary relevant exposure would not be likely to alter immune response. Bot. Public Health 14:825. doi: 10.3390/ijerph14070825, Jacoby, R. P., Koprivova, A., and Kopriva, S. (2020). Aflatoxins are amongst the most poisonous mycotoxins and are produced by certain moulds (Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus) which grow in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains. Integration of pre- and postharvest treatments for the control of black spot caused by Alternaria alternata in stored persimmon fruit. U S A. The multiple facets of plantfungal interactions revealed through plant and fungal secretomics. doi: 10.1128/mBio.00820-18, Stinson, E. E., Osman, S. F., Huhtanen, C. N., and Bills, D. D. (1978). 8600 Rockville Pike Besides apple products, patulin contamination has been reported in figs, grapes, apricots, pears and peaches; some vegetables, cereals and cheeses; and also in some seafood4. doi: 10.1128/AEM.01009-18, Wang, Y., Yu, T., Li, Y., Cai, D., Liu, X., Lu, H., et al. Int. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies (2005). doi: 10.1094/pdis-11-19-2322-pdn, Alkan, N., and Fortes, A. M. (2015). Cerexagri Inc (2017). Ochratoxin A is a mycotoxin produced by certain Aspergillus and Penicillium molds. (2019). [14] A recent article described detection of patulin in marine strains of Penicillium, indicating a potential risk in shellfish consumption. _G_H\kv$`>*(
Fruits that were damaged or improperly stored are susceptible to the growth of patulin-producing molds. doi: 10.1016/j.bjm.2015.11.004, Lu, L., Lu, H., Wu, C., Fang, W., Yu, C., Ye, C., et al. A mycotoxin (from the Greek mykes, "fungus" and toxini, "toxin") [1] [2] is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by organisms of kingdom Fungi [3] [4] and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals. Toxins 11:27. doi: 10.3390/toxins11010027, Costa-Orlandi, C. B., Sardi, J. C. O., Pitangui, N. S., de Oliveira, H. C., Scorzoni, L., Galeane, M. C., et al. Microbiol. Memorandum of Understanding 225-19-031. [4], Patulin was found to be immunotoxic in a number of animal and even human studies. National Library of Medicine Int. The purpose of this . 1 Mycotoxin patulin Mycotoxins are low-molecular-weight toxic chemical compounds with low volatility, representing . and aflatoxin production, Lactobacillus sp. J. Apples are sorted before being processed into juice, to ensure that those which do not meet the quality criteria are removed. 121, 13841393. J. Appl. [10] A number of studies have looked into comparisons of organic vs conventional harvest of apples and levels of patulin contamination. 10:264. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00264, Brito, A. C. Q., Mello, J. F., Vieira, J. C. B., Cmara, M. P. S., Bezerra, J. D. P., Souza-Motta, C. M., et al. Once the product is hydrated, it is applied pre storage and is effective in reducing several diseases via its rapid growth and colonization of wounds (Janisiewicz, 1988; Bull et al., 1997; Janisiewicz and Korsten, 2002). However, recent studies have shown that microbes are able to produce these compounds as well during their interaction with their plant host (Buchholz et al., 2018; Figure 1). Front. Due to the binding affinity to sulfhydryl groups, patulin can inhibit a wide array of enzymes. The FDA has published guidance levels for fumonisins. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2012.06.013, Mehmood, A., Liu, G., Wang, X., Meng, G., Wang, C., and Liu, Y. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. 6:573. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00573, Quintana-Rodriguez, E., Rivera-Macias, L. E., Adame-Alvarez, R. M., Torres, J. M., and Heil, M. (2018). Microbiology 159, 902912. Mol. The FDAs Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA) laboratories are in the process of transitioning to a multi- mycotoxin liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method that has been multi-laboratory validated for the simultaneous quantification of twelve mycotoxins in food (https://www.fda.gov/media/114240/download).
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